Chronic Poverty- A Global Concern

For all of you who receive dozens of global/public health emails each day (or more!) this blog is for you.

I was just pondering about the effectiveness of mass mailings and more importantly multiple mailings from the same organizations. I'm certain that at some point SUNSIH's been guilty of this activity, although we are conscious of the benefits of consolidating relevant information in a single communication. Perhaps what I think of most is whether there is a better way to share news and information without overwhelming you. I know we can all scan through our emails and draw out the important data, but wouldn't it be nice to have it come to you completely sorted out? If you have any suggestions for a more accessible way for us to share event information please do let us know! Also if you would like to suggest the type of content you would like to receive we would like to hear from you. general@sunsih.ca

Anyway, once in a while you do come across a great gem which is what I would like to share with you today. This report actually showed up in my inbox a few weeks ago but I've recently shared it with a colleague and so I thought I would share it with you as well. Of course as always, I do urge you to take it with a grain of salt.

Chronic Poverty Research Centre CPRC - UK’s Department for International Development (DFID)

July 2008

Available online PDF [164p.] at: http://www.chronicpoverty.org/pubfiles/CPR2_whole_report.pdf

‘…..Over the last five years, in an era of unprecedented global wealth creation, the number of people living in chronic poverty has increased. Between 320 and 443 million people are now trapped in poverty that lasts for many years, often for their entire lifetime. Their children frequently inherit chronic poverty, if they survive infancy. Many chronically poor people die prematurely from easily preventable health problems.

For the chronically poor, poverty is not simply about having a very low income: it is about multidimensional deprivation – hunger, undernutrition, illiteracy, unsafe drinking water, lack of access to basic health services, social discrimination, physical insecurity and political exclusion. Whichever way one frames the problem of chronic poverty – as human suffering, as vulnerability, as a basic needs failure, as the abrogation of human rights, as degraded citizenship – one thing is clear.

Widespread chronic poverty occurs in a world that has the knowledge and resources to eradicate it.

This report argues that tackling chronic poverty is the global priority for our generation. There are robust ethical grounds for arguing that chronically poor people merit the greatest international, national and personal attention and effort. Tackling chronic poverty is vital if our world is to achieve an acceptable level of justice and fairness.

There are also strong pragmatic reasons for doing so. Addressing chronic poverty sooner rather than later will achieve much greater results at a dramatically lower cost. More broadly, reducing chronic poverty provides global public benefits, in terms of political and economic stability and public health….”

“….Priority goes to two policy areas – social protection (Chapter 3) and public services for the hard to reach (Chapter 5) – that can spearhead the assault on chronic poverty. Alongside these are anti-discrimination and gender empowerment (Chapter 5), building individual and collective assets (Chapters 3, 4 and 6) and strategic urbanisation and migration (Chapters 4 and 5). Working together, these policies reduce chronic poverty directly and create and maintain a just social compact that will underpin long-term efforts to eradicate chronic poverty (Chapter 6). Such social compacts ensure a distribution of public goods and services that contributes to justice and fairness….”

Content:

PART A – Chronic poverty as a key policy issue

Chapter 1 – Foundations for understanding and challenging chronic poverty

A. Chronic poverty and justice

B. The nature and extent of chronic poverty

C. Why address chronic poverty?

D: How to address chronic poverty?

E. Chronically Deprived Countries and Consistent Improvers

F. Conclusion

Chapter 2 – The policy and political challenge

A. Introduction

B. Where are the chronically poor in PRSs?

C. Policy responses/policy choices in PRSs

D. Political systems and ownership

E. Institutional mainstreaming and participation of the poor

F. Implementation

Obstacles to implementation

G. Conclusion

PART B – Four sets of policies for poverty eradication

Chapter 3 – Addressing insecurity through social protection

A. Introduction

B. The central role of vulnerability

C. The importance of social protection

D. Lessons from existing social protection programmes and policies

E. Country context

F. Conclusion

Chapter 4 – Economic growth and chronic poverty

A. Introduction

B. Poor people and the growth process

C. Disaggregation matters for policy

D. Transformative growth

E. Growth and strategic choices

F. Social protection as a policy lever for growth in Chronically Deprived Countries

G. Conclusion

Chapter 5 – Transformative social change

A. Introduction

B. Gender equality, social inclusion and increased ‘agency’: social goals to end chronic poverty

C. Politics

D. Policy contexts

E. Conclusion

Chapter 6 – Ending violent conflict and building a social compact

A. Introduction

B. Violent conflict and impoverishment

C. Redefining the fragile state

D. Towards a social compact

E. Financing the social compact

F. Conclusion

PART C – Conclusion

Chapter 7 – Eradicating chronic poverty

A. Eradicating chronic poverty

B. Five key poverty traps 1

C. Policy reponses to chronic poverty traps

D. Country context

E. Regaining the promise of poverty reduction

References

Background Papers :

http://www.chronicpoverty.org/cpra-background.php

New GHEC website

Dear friends and colleagues,
It was recently brought to my attention that GHEC has updated their website: www.globalhealthedu.org

Please take a look under RESOURCES especially in the PRIMARILY FOR STUDENTS & RESIDENTS section. It provides very useful information including Global Health:Career Options & Specialization (http://globalhealthedu.org/Pages/GlobalHealthCareer.aspx), newer topics such as "Establishing a Research Career in Global Health" and a Guidebook on Developing Residency Training in Global Health. http://globalhealthedu.org/Pages/Resource.aspx

GHEC also has developed educational modules for students to review either on their own or in instructor-led courses. They are great and very useful for your local student groups on campus! Please pass on this information to others who may be interested. http://globalhealthedu.org/Modules/Default.aspx

Sincerely,
Eugene Lam
President
Student University Network for Social and International Health
SUNSIH/REUSSI

Public Health in Crisis-Affected Populations

Dear Friends,

A professor from the London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine has written a paper on public health in crises, meant mainly as a didactic tool for non-epidemiologists, and intended for people at all levels (donors, NGOs, UN, government, media, students etc.). It's open-access so please feel free to distribute to others who may be interested.

This is the link:

http://www.odihpn.org/documents/networkpaper061.pdf

His info is below:

Francesco Checchi

Lecturer

Disease Control and Vector Biology Unit
Department of Infectious and Tropical Diseases
London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine
Room 51G6, 49-51 Bedford Square
London WC1B 3DP, United Kingdom
office +44 (0)20 7927 2336
mobile +44 (0)79 0671 9637
fax +44 (0)20 7927 2918
e-mail francesco.checchi@lshtm.ac.uk

International Day of the African Child

June 16th is the International Day of the African Child

I was just listening to a CBC report on the status of education in South Africa.
This program was particularly relevant because it brought up the 1976 Soweto uprising.
Schoolchildren protesting for their right to equal education were shot at by police officers.

At the time, the apartheid government established a school system that discriminated against all black students. Learning was made less accessible through the Afrikaans Medium Decree of 1974 which stated that lessons would be split between Afrikaans and English. Indigenous languages were excluded, except for physical, religious and musical instruction.

Imagine being a 7th grader and suddenly being told that you were no longer allowed to learn mathematics, socials studies and science in your own language! Students were required to learn in a language that was unfamiliar for many and oppressive for all.

The original Soweto rioting led to weeks of protesting that resulted in hundreds of deaths and thousands of injuries. Although it took nearly 20 more years for national change, this event inspired the internationally recognized day of the African Child initiated by the Organization of African Unity in 1991.

The theme this year is “Right to Participation: Let Children be Seen and Heard”.

Sexual Exploitation at the Hands of UN Peacekeepers and NGO Aid Workers: Perpetuating the Power Imbalance, and the Poverty of Rights

The UK branch of Save the Children International released a report at the end of May 2008 detailing the extent of a problem that was first identified in 2002. It was meant not to be a technically rigorous expose of the perpetrators and the victims, but more a 'snapshot' of the current situation, and the ineffectiveness of the policies put in place by the international community in response to this problem in 2002.

I was shocked and dismayed to learn of these gross offenses, and disappointed to realize that even those with good intentions at heart are subject to the evils of the human form. Or, perhaps the very call to work in a supposedly glorified and distinguished position, as is often seen within these already decimated and impoverished communities, appeals to the sociopathic tendencies that would then permit them to avail of the inherent power-imbalance that the aid and NGO industry exacerbates.

The data was collected through field visits, focus groups, and interviews in locations where Save the Children International have projects: Haiti, Cote d'Ivoire, and Sudan. The interviews would reveal very explicit stories of abuse at the hands of foreign aid workers, peacekeepers, and local staff of NGOs. The whole spectrum of sexual abuse, from verbal sexual harassment, to forced/coerced sexual assault was revealed, often with the exchange for money, material goods, perceived promise of protection and security, or the basics of human subsistence, food and clean water.

Naturally, children are the most vulnerable in any population, and this study revealed that children displaced from their home communities, children from especially poor families, and children whose families are dependent on humanitarian aid. Orphans were also particularly susceptible, suffering the double offense of sexual exploitation, and then the absence of a parental figure to advocate for the child, to seek redress.

The perpetrators were found to be members of 23 humanitarian, peacekeeping, and security organizations, with a particular source being the UN Department of Peacekeeping Organizations. Outside the scope of this report, it is difficult to quantify to extent of the abuses, given the undereporting by victim, and the absence of a reporting system within each of these organizations.

It isn't hard to imagine the reasons for under-reporting, when these children come to understand that sex can be used as a survival tactic. And, the risk of losing the protection and security of much needed resources is enough to suspend the need for one's physical integrity. This only speaks to the double failure of the aid community, to subject these already disadvantaged population to further affronts to their security, and that aid is insufficient in sustaining those most in need, and instead further deepens this power differential. Stigmatisation is a powerful social element, as womanhood and purity are integral to a girl's identity and perception within her community, which also can cause negative economic ramifications for the family, who cannot marry out their daughter for the gain of a dowry. Even if a victim summoned the strength to step forward, there is a general lack of confidence in the system, for both reporting and for discipline, of those who perpetrate the abuse.

What should the international community do about this?
Below is some proposed solutions put forth by Save the Children

1. Formation of interagency bodies that then provide evaluation and policing of the NGO agencies
2. NGOs developing internal standards of conduct
3. Implementing effective local complaints mechanisms for reporting abuse
4. Formation of a new global watchdog
5. Tackling the root causes or drivers of abuse: this goes beyond monitoring and reprimanding individuals within aid and peacekeeping agencies, but looking at the systematic failures of child protection services within the communities.

The only other thing I would like to see added is an ongoing evaluation mechanism for the effectiveness of these 'interventions'. Since this problem was identified in 2002, the extent of child sexual exploitation has not diminished, but has indeed increased. Are we to wait another 6, 12, 20 years for another field-based qualitative review of the issue, revealing that yet more years of child abuse have occurred?

Global Survey on Pediatric Curricula - We Want You!

What is this?

The Global Survey on Pediatric Curricula is an official trans-national project of International Federation on Medical Students' Association (IFMSA) in collaboration with WHO Department of Child and Adolescent Health and Development. The survey is being conducted by IFMSA SCOME from October 2007- May 2008 and extended until June 2008.

The Aim and Objectives

The aim of this project is to create a Map and Database of Paediatric Curricula around the world which enables us to get the information about the Paediatric Curricula. It is intended as a tool to gather and consolidate information on what medical students learn and understand, and also what skills they have in paediatric.

The main objectives of this project are to : (1) describe what medical students learn during their paediatric curricula, (2) describe clinical skills taught in Paediatric Curricula, and (3) find out what medical students know and learn about IMCI in their paediatric curricula.

Target Audience

We need your help to promote this survey in your home country and encourage medical students who had finished paediatric clerkship/clerkship to participate. We need at least 1387 responses, with at minimum three minimum students from each medical school taking part. We also extended the target audience to freshly graduated doctors (not exceeded by 6 month after graduation).

Link

The on-line survey can be accessed through:

http://tools.ifmsa.org/surveys/survey.php?sid=39

Username: pediatrics

Password: pediatrics

Current Response

So far, we have received 543 responses from people in 61 countries

What do we need you to ?

Fill in the survey if you have completed paediatric clinical rotation or clerkship

Send the link to your peers in your own language, add the link to your national and local medical student websites

What do you get in return?

In addition to the reward of knowing that you are contributing to an important piece of research, you'll be the lucky recipients of a free copy of the Pocket book

http://www.who.int/child_adolescent_health/documents/9241546700/en/index.html

In addition, all those who participate in the survey will receive summary of the final results.

Final Extended Deadline

June 16, 2008 at 24.00 (Geneva time)

On behalf of GSPC team,

Fina Hidayati Tams, B.Med
International Project Coordinator
Global Survey on Pediatric Curricula

Faculty of Medicine

Gadjah Mada University, Indonesia

Intern CAH Dept. WHO HQ, Geneva, Switzerland
Period : May-June 2008

Mobile : +41 (0) 76 286 0944

UN Letter Advocating Against Travel Restrictions for PLWHA

Please read about PLWHA travel restrictions.

You can sign a petition and perhaps forward to your own networks.

SUNSIH/REUSSI has signed on as one of the petitioners.

Travel restrictions for PLWHA - issue raised by EAA
http://www.e-alliance.ch/hiv/temp/wac.jpg

Call on governments to lift HIV travel restrictions

Introduction

In advance of the United Nations High Level Meeting on AIDS in New York from June 10- 11, the World AIDS Campaign and the Ecumenical Advocacy Alliance urge organizations to sign onto a letter from civil society to the UN missions and Heads of State of countries that impose travel restrictions on people living with HIV.

We join with other members of civil society in condemning such restrictions as discriminatory and in contradiction to the commitments made through the 2001 Declaration of Commitment on HIV/AIDS and the 2006 Political Declaration. We urge governments that continue to impose travel restriction on people living with HIV to lift these, whether short or long-term.

Signatures will be collected via email until June 5. To sign on, email the name of your organization and country to universalaccess2010@icaso.org. Signatures will also be collected during the civil-society pre-meeting taking place the day before (June 9) of the High Level Meeting in New York.

Background

When the HIV and AIDS epidemic was identified in the early 1980s and little was
understood about the disease, many countries established travel restrictions in an effort to prevent the virus from entering their borders. Such measures included mandatory HIV testing for persons seeking entry to the country and negative HIV status declarations by would-be entrants. Based on these mandatory tests and declarations, a number of countries have excluded from entry people living with HIV or people suspected of being infected.

Despite the medical advances that have made HIV a manageable disease, and a general consensus from the public health community that travel restrictions are inappropriate and discriminatory in nature, over 70 countries still impose some form of restrictions, citing two main reasons - to protect the national public health and to avoid the economic costs of providing health care and social assistance to people affected by HIV and AIDS.

These travel restrictions can take on different forms, including restrictions on people wishing to enter or remain in a country for a short stay such as business, personal visits or tourism; or for longer periods, such as labour migration, employment, asylum or refugee resettlement, or study. Of the countries with restrictions in place, some 10 countries bar people living with HIV from entering or staying in their country for any reason or length of time.[1] Countries
requiring special attention include: Burnei, China, Iraq, Qatar, South Korea, Libya,
Oman, Saudi Arabia, Singapore, Sudan, Yemen, United Arab Emirates and the United
States.

The 2001 Declaration of Commitments on HIV/AIDS saw governments agreeing to "enact, strengthen or enforce as appropriate legislation, regulations and other measures to
eliminate all forms of discrimination against, and to ensure the full enjoyment of all human rights and fundamental freedoms by people living with HIV/AIDS", and in the 2006 Political Declaration on HIV/AIDS governments committed to intensifying efforts to eliminate all forms of discrimination directed towards people living with HIV and AIDS. Also, the report of the consultation on international travel and HIV infection of the WHO, April 1987 states "HIV-related travel restrict ions have no valid public health rationale and may in fact undermine HIV prevention and other efforts to stop the epidemic".

Unfortunately, these commitments are not being kept.

What can YOU Do?

As part of a wide coalition of civil society organizations, we encourage you to sign on to letter below and take other steps as an individual or as an organization to join the call to countries to lift any form of HIV- related travel restrictions policies and/or laws.

Sign on to the letter below by sending your organization's name and
country to universalaccess2010@icaso.org no later than June 5.

Find out the status of any travel restrictions imposed by your country.
The list of countries with HIV-related travel restrictions is always changing. Check
up-do-date information before you advocate with a specific government. (For more
detailed information country-by country, visit http://www.eatg.org/hivtravel
www.eatg.org/hivtravel or www.aidshilfe.de)

Use the upcoming 2008 UN High Level Meeting on AIDS as a moment to press for new commitments (and action) by your own government and others to remove travel restrictions. This could be a very positive example of progress.

Use the 2008 UN High Level Meeting on AIDS to begin to strategize about national level action to oppose HIV-related travel restrictions.

Inform the media about the issue and the discriminatory practices of many countries.

Do not hold international conferences in countries with HIV-related travel restrictions. Future UN High Level Meetings or Reviews on AIDS should not be held in countries with such restrictions.

Raise awareness among your networks and constituency about the travel restrictions.
Many people are not even aware that such restrictions exist.

Advocate with others: Create a letter writing campaign to officials in your government. You can advocate at all levels of government: from your local representatives all the way up the President or Prime Minister. Work together with other religious communities, civil society organizations and networks of people living with HIV. Make sure you let the media know about your plans.

Lobby your government officials to speak out against HIV-related travel restrictions at 2008 UN High Level Meeting on AIDS.

Text of the Letter:

Civil Society Letter on HIV-related Travel Restrictions Addressed to the UN Missions and Heads of State in Countries with Restrictions

Dear Excellency,

As we approach the 2008 UN high-level meeting on AIDS, all governments and the global
community are called to review the progress and performance in achieving universal access to treatment, care, support and prevention by 2010.

As leaders within civil society, we are writing to ask for your urgent attention and leadership in removing your country's travel restrictions (short or long-term) that restrict access to people, based solely on their HIV status. These restrictions are discriminatory and are contrary to the commitments made through the 2001 Declaration of Commitment on HIV/AIDS and the 2006 Political Declaration.

We are asking you to consider announcing in New York, plans to lift your country's restrictions. This is the right thing to do. It does not create financial or other burdens. And as civil society, we are ready to stand with you in making and implementing such a commitment. This would be a noteworthy step and a sign of real leadership at the high-level meeting on June 10 -11 in New York.

Overview

HIV-related travel restrictions are not something new. They have existed since the beginning of the epidemic, but are increasingly obsolete and discriminatory in a world with more access to treatment and ever-increasing mobility.

Today, there are more than 70 countries that still impose some form of HIV- specific restrictions on the entry and residence of positive people. Of these, some 10 countries bar HIV positive people from entering or staying in their country for any reason or length of time. There are close to 30 countries that deport people once their HIV infection is discovered. More than 70 countries do not have HIV specific travel restrictions. For the remaining 49 countries, the information is either contradictory or unavailable.[2]

The most visible impact is when HIV positive people-against the principle of the greater involvement of people living with HIV-are denied entry into countries where major conferences or meetings on HIV are being held. This robs people living with HIV from opportunities to contribute their experience and expertise, while also diminishing the credibility and accomplishment of the conference or meeting. This situation is very problematic at UN high-level meetings on AIDS held in the United States, which has a complete ban on the entry of people living with HIV (HIV positive delegates, civil society representatives, UN staff, religious leaders, media, trade union members, and business people). In order to enter the United States
legally to attend such meetings, people living with HIV must disclose their status in a discriminatory and humiliating waiver process. The often lengthy and intrusive process to receive a visa waiver is all the more stigmatizing and discriminatory, when a mark is placed in a person's passport, indicating the waiver and its purpose.

However, in terms of largest impact and numbers of people affected, HIV- related travel restrictions are felt most by labour migrants. Prospective migrants are either barred from entering a country when determined to be HIV positive through a mandatory pre-departure HIV test, or are deported when required to take a periodic HIV test during their residence abroad, and test positively. Rarely is this type of HIV-testing confidential or linked to any other services, either in a person's country of origin or destination. This exposes to and places people who are already highly vulnerable in situations of great discrimination and economic
devastation. Similarly, people living with HIV, who want to cross borders for the
purposes of family reunification, suffer from the same restrictions.

Fulfilling existing commitments

The 2001 Declaration of Commitment on HIV/AIDS saw governments agree to "enact, strengthen or enforce as appropriate legislation, regulations and other measures to eliminate all forms of discrimination against, and to ensure the full enjoyment of all human rights and fundamental freedoms by people living with HIV/AIDS" (para.58).

The 2006 Political Declaration on HIV/AIDS saw governments commit to intensifying efforts towards these ends (para.29). These commitments are not being kept.

The realities are: HIV-related travel restrictions have no valid public health rationale and may in fact undermine HIV prevention and other efforts to stop the epidemic. This has been definitively stated by the World Health Organization and the World Health Assembly on several occasions. [3] HIV-specific travel restrictions are discriminatory and contribute to the stigmatization of people living with HIV. HIV-related travel restrictions are anachronisms, and highly inappropriate in the age of globalization, increased travel, treatment for HIV, and national and
international commitments to universal access to HIV prevention, treatment, care and
support. There is no demonstrated proof that the spectre of a huge negative economic impact on countries without travel restrictions is valid. In fact, the evidence points to the opposite in a country like Brazil, where there is universal access to treatment and there are no travel restrictions. There has been no flood of HIV positive travellers (short or long-term) streaming across the borders to claim treatment, placing a burden on Brazilian society. Long-term travel restrictions that single out HIV, as opposed to comparable conditions, are also discriminatory. Any restriction based on fear of costs must be based on an individual determination that such costs will actually be incurred. Any human rights or humanitarian concerns, such as need for asylum, should always trump economic considerations. The commitment of organizations
and governments to the GIPA principle (Greater Involvement of People Living with HIV or AIDS) is regularly undermined by HIV-related travel restrictions, when HIV positive speakers, resource people and leaders, cannot enter countries to take part in meetings, programs or planning.

UNAIDS and The Global Fund to Fight AIDS, Tuberculosis and Malaria are working together against such restrictions and have created an International Task Team on HIV-related Travel Restrictions, which comprises representatives of governments, UN agencies and civil society, including people living with HIV. They will be issuing their report and recommendations later this year, as well as providing tools to support governments in taking the steps to remove their restrictions. The Global Fund decided that it would not hold Board Meetings in countries that restrict short-term entry of people living with HIV or require prospective HIV-positive visitors to
declare their HIV status on entry.

What you can do We ask you to rescind HIV-specific travel restrictions and instead, take steps to ensure access to HIV prevention, treatment, care and support for mobile populations, both nationals and non-nationals. We are asking you to use the upcoming 2008 UN high-level meeting on AIDS as a moment to announce the elimination of these restrictions by your government. We are asking you to take up the issue of travel restrictions with other governments where they are applied to your citizens seeking to travel or migrate. We are asking you to meet with people living with HIV, who will be in New York at the high-level meeting to hear first-hand their experience of discrimination and stigmatization caused by travel restrictions. We implore you to not hold international conferences that are relevant to the response to HIV and AIDS in countries with HIV-related travel restrictions. Future UN high-level meetings or Reviews on AIDS should not be held in countries with such restrictions.

Yours respectfully,

[list of organizations]

This letter can also be downloaded at:
http://www.e-alliance.ch/media/media-7297.doc
For more information, please visit:
EATG website: http://www.eatg.org/hivtravel www.eatg.org/hivtravel

Deutsche AIDS Hilfe website: www.aidshilfe.de

Keep the Promise Campaign Bulletin of the EAA: The EAA website:
http://www.e-alliance.ch/media/media-7264.pdf#page=1&view=Fit

Ua2010.org:
http://www.ua2010.org/en/UA2010/Universal-Access/Travel-Restrictions

*********************************************************************************************************************

For past Action Alerts and Bulletins from the HIV and AIDS Campaign,

see http://www.e-alliance.ch/newsletters.jsp

The Ecumenical Advocacy Alliance is a broad international network of
churches and
Christian organizations cooperating in advocacy on global trade and HIV
and AIDS. The
Alliance is based in Geneva, Switzerland. For more information, see
http://www.e-alliance.ch/

*********************************************************************************************************************

[1] This information is taken from the web site of the European AIDS
Treatment Group,
and based on a survey which was originally done by the German AIDS
Federation in 1999
and has been continually updated. The information has not been independently
verified. See http://www.eatg.org/hivtravel/

[2] This information is taken from the web site of the European AIDS
Treatment Group,
and based on a survey which was originally done by the German AIDS
Federation in 1999
and has been continually updated. The information has not been independently
verified. See http://www.eatg.org/hivtravel/

[3] Report of the consultation on international travel and HIV infection.
Geneva,
World Health Organization, April 1987; WHO/SPA/GLO/787.1.
http://whqlibdoc.who.int/hq/1987/WHO_SPA_GLO_87.1.pdf; Statement on
screening of
international travellers for infection with Human Immunodeficiency Virus,
WHO,
WHO/GPA/INF/88.3 (1988).; WHA Resolution 41.24 Avoidance of discrimination
in relation
to HIV-infected people and people with AIDS (1988)